[SOLVED] HIST 100 Grossmont College History Essay – Humanities

You will be investigating the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire).  Read chapter seven in our book and the information at the included web sites below.  What were the outstanding accomplishments of the Byzantine empire under Justinian and Theodora’s rule? What was Theodora’s role in the governance of Constantinople? What was unusual about her role, for the time? In what ways did they preserve the culture of the Roman Empire and help solidify the importance and expansion of Christianity? Don’t forget to respond to one peer. 
http://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/byza…
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/Lecture 11A: Rome
We move now to the next crucial civilization to have made a lasting mark on Western
European civilizations. The art, architecture, law code, and political style of Rome
profoundly impacted the development of medieval Europe. Of course, Rome itself was
so incredibly influenced by Greek art, religion, architecture, and politics that it also
provides continuity of that tradition. Also, Rome will nurture the early Christian
movement and provide the base from which the Roman Catholic Church will develop.
Rome is located in Italy. Italy is divided into geographic regions. The Apennines form a
great central mountain range. The zigzagging of the Apennines creates 3 natural
lowland regions; the Po valley in the north, Apulia in the south, and the West districts of
Etruria, Latium, and Campania. The western districts had the richest agricultural land
and natural lines of communication. Rome had the benefit of being in the central
location of communication routes and in the position to prevent movement north or
south or from the Mediterranean into the interior, but it was vulnerable to attack from
many sides. Diplomacy was an early important element in Rome’s dealings with its
neighbors as it developed the principle of divide and conquer.
People of Italy
Diverse peoples inhabited the area we call Italy. Celts infiltrated across the Alps in the
early 5th century bce. Then massive numbers of Celts arrived around 400 bce settled in
Po valley and expanded southward along Adriatic Coast. Greeks had been in Italy and
Sicily since the 8th century, mainly along the southern coasts. The Phoenicians were
influential in Etruria. The Interior of Italy was mainly in the hands of 2 groups; IndoEuropean speakers called the Venetians of the Po, the Oscans and Umbrians of central
and east coast, and the Latins of the west and then the Non-Indo speaking Etruscans, a
small number of Apulia, and Ligurians. The Oscans were the most widespread, the
Celts the most dangerous. The Latins were confined between the Tiber River and
Campania.
The Oscans and Celts were pre-state tribal people, who only slowly became partially
urban, but they had a significant military, and their raiding caused urban populations of
other areas problems
Etruscans
The Etruscans were an extremely wealthy and influential group inhabiting Italy. We first
find evidence of them around the year 700 bce. Scholars are still debating whether the
Etruscans emerged from the earlier Italian culture called the Villanovan, Urnfield culture,
found also in the Alps, or if they moved into the area and mixed with the native group?
Herodotus believed the Etruscans were Lydians. They certainly had undeniable
affinities with the east. They built tholos tombs, practiced divination with animal
remains, and had artistic similarities with eastern groups. Neither scenario is entirely
convincing; more evidence needs to be gathered. They were organized in a loose
federation that met annually to plan joint action and religious festivals. Traditionally
these tribes numbered 12, but at times more. We don’t have all the names, but do
know that the cities cooperated but also fought. They were ruled by kings who were
priests, generals, judges, and political leaders until the 5th century. After the 5th century
the y elected the leader annually. Society was divided between aristocrats, no free
middle class, and a large number of servile classes. Aristocratic women apparently had
great freedom. The scandalized Greeks accused them of materialism and loose morals
Their wealth was based on a large supply of iron, tin, copper, and zinc as well as rich
agricultural land. Their decorative jewelry and bronzes were unsurpassed in ancient
world. Their empire in Campania and Po lasted until Roman times after which they
were confined to Etruria. They were at their height between 650-450 bce, but collisions
with Greeks Latins, Celts, and Oscans shattered their power and they were eclipsed by
Rome.
Etruscan Legacy to Rome
Although the Greeks were the most influential on Rome, the Etruscans did influence
early Roman development to a degree. Their divination practices influenced Rome.
Divination was practiced using animal liver, lightning, and thunder. They also, like the
Greeks and later Romans, ordered all aspects of life. They had rules for living, building.
The Romans learned from the Etruscans to establish boundaries to set up colonies and
divide the territory of the countryside in neat, rectilinear grids that pass over natural
obstacles without interruption. They also borrowed the interior layout of the Etruscan
temple. The columns were borrowed form the Greeks, but the Romans subordinated
the individual to the order and symmetry of the buildings and state deities. The Romans
also learned engineering techniques from the Etruscans. For more, visit the following
sites:
http://www.dia.org/collections/ancient/theetruscans/theetruscans.html
http://history-world.org/etruscans.htm
http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/romans/history/etruscans.htm
http://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/etrweb/etrmain.htm
Latins and Early Rome
The prehistoric site of Rome was just a number of villages settled on the hills and
struggling to survive aggressive neighbors. Later eight of the hill villages formed a
sacred federation with boundaries marked by bridges. The Romans did not have an
early Homer or Mycenaean heritage to look back on for its founding. They chose to
emphasize the simplicity and heterogeneity of the early years. Not until Rome was
expanding did it have a need or impulse to offer an account of its history. Around the
3rd century an established version began to emerge.
The Greeks put forward Odysseus as the founder of Rome, but the Romans did not
want a Greek founder. They chose Aeneas, a Trojan, as their as founder and worked
him into preexisting native legends of Remus and Romulus. For the myth, visit
http://www.schoolshistory.org.uk/birthofrome.htm
From history and archeology we can divide the history of early Rome into different
stages. Stage One, from 900-800 bce, is based on the myth of Aeneas arriving to found
the villages. Stage Two, from the founding of the city 800-750 bce, embraces the
period of the legend of Romulus. Stage 3, from 750-600 bce, covers the expansion and
development of the hills of Rome. Stage 4, from 625-575 bce, represents the archaic
city of Rome under Etruscan influence
During the last stage, the power of kings was increasing and they were attempting to
check the strength of the leading families, the patricians. According to the Romans, the
last kings were despotic and had to be deposed. It seems probable that the kings were
no more or less despotic than any others, but the Romans did not want to set a
precedent for rebellion. By stressing the despotic nature of the kings, they were
emphasizing that only in the most extreme of circumstances could citizens’ rise up
against the government.
Establishment of republic
The Roman nobility deposed the last Etruscan King in 509 bce. They established the
Republican constitution that included 2 consuls. The consuls were in charge of civil and
military affairs. Consuls were elected by an assembly dominated by patricians.
Patricians were the hereditary aristocracy of Rome. They dominated offices and land
ownership. A group called the Senate advised the consuls and ratified all major
decisions. Both the senate and consuls represented the interests of patricians.
Conflicts between patricians and plebeians emerged over issues of debt, land
ownership, and privileges. Plebeians were the common people of Rome. While many
were poor, some were quite wealthy. They resented patrician domination of politics and
respect in Rome. In the 5th century bce, the plebeians withdrew from city, refused to
serve in the Roman army, swore an oath of loyalty and sacrifice for common cause,
established their own temple, appointed own government . The patricians were forced
to offer the plebeians important concessions. These included plebeians the right to
elect tribunes as representatives, a council of plebs, allowed patricians and plebeians to
marry, gave them access to public land in 367 bce, addressed debt, allowed the
admission of non patricians to consulship in 367 bce and one consulship position was
reserved for plebs. In 326 bce they outlawed imprisonment for debt. The publication in
304 bce of a handbook of legal phrases and procedures and posting of calendar of days
public business transacted was important. In 287 bce the Council of the Plebs was
recognized as a constitutional body whose decrees became laws with force for all
citizens. Another achievement of the plebeians was the publication of The Twelve
Tablets. These were the source of all laws, private and public, governing rights and
duties of families, marriage, inheritance, crimes, and punishments, and rights of appeal.
The publication of the laws was a great achievement. A single code of law was
thereafter applied to all by a uniform, universally known process. The law represented
the conscious molding of institutions to serve the needs of the people rather than tacit
assumption that the law was divine and outside human control. Plebeians were usually
content until 133 bce to allow Senate to run the government because Rome was in
almost constant warfare, but lingering problems existed. The Plebeians became the
new Roman establishment and wanted to guard their privileges even more than the old
aristocracy. They grew rich and distant from the poor leading to an increase in social
tension over time
The expansion of the republic
Rome consolidated its position in Italy in the 5th and 4th century bce. Rome had been
part of the Latin League with reciprocal rights of marriage, commerce, migration. After
the expulsion of the Etruscans, Rome no longer saw the need to remain in the alliance.
The Latins and Romans renegotiated in 493 bce for reasons of mutual interest. In 390
bce a raiding party of Celts called Gauls invaded Italy from central Europe, wiped out
the Roman army, and almost destroyed the city by fire. After 7 months and a huge
ransom, the Gauls withdrew; Rome rebuilt, protected the city with a stone wall, and
remodeled army. The Phalanx model had initially been used, but was now reformed
into a much less rigid system. Cohesion and professionalism were stressed by
centurions who were drawn from the ranks not elites. The benefit of this was that the
centurions were not officers, outsiders with different interests they were of the rank,
trusted, and competent. The introduction of pay was an important reform.
The army, however, was recruited and disbanded annually. The Latin League, alarmed
at growing power of Rome, grew tense and war broke out. In 338 bce the Latin League
dissolved. As Rome expanded it took over many of the areas of the former league.
Rome dealt with its former allies in different ways. The development of municipia (dual
citizenship, tax and military service, full participation in politics for many others partial
benefit) and colonies followed. The Latins kept citizenship, reciprocal commerce and
marriage with Rome, but not with each other. Colonies were planted at key locations.
Grants of land were offered for settlement and garrisons of 300 families each were
settled in coastal areas. Rome subdued the Greek city states of Italy and gained control
of the peninsula except for the northern Celtic areas.
Conflict with Carthage (PUNIC WARS)
Carthage was a city-state of the Phoenicians we learned about earlier in the class. It
was a rich trading center in N. Africa with colonies in Sicily and Spain. The initial
conflict with Rome was over competing interests in Italy and Sicily.
The first Punic War lasted from 264 to241 bce. Roman and Carthaginian interests
overlapped and led to conflict. Rome answered the appeal of Italian mercenaries of
Messana for help against Carthaginians. A land war would have gone in Rome’s favor,
but they were loosing at sea where the Phoenicians were kings of the sea. Rome was
forced to develop a navy. Carthage asked for peace in 241 bce. The war ended with
Rome controlling Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. These were their first Mediterranean
colonies. In the Second Punic War, 218-201 bce, The Carthaginian General Hannibal
attacked a protectorate of Rome (Saguntum). He led infantry, cavalry, and elephants on
a 1000 mile march across Southern France and over the Alps to carry the fight to the
gates of Rome. He won three major victories, inflicted huge casualties on the Roman
army. The war ended when the Roman General Scipio defeated the Carthaginians. He
started by taking Spain, and then used Rome’s fleet to block the waters to keep
Carthage from sending reinforcements to Hannibal. He then landed in N Africa and
threatened Carthage. Hannibal hurried back and was defeated in 202 bce. The powers
signed a treaty in 201 bce. Carthage was forced to turn Spain over to Rome. Rome
became the preeminent power in Eastern and Western Mediterranean. The Third Punic
War forever destroys Carthage (149-146 bce). Rome next fought against Macedonia.
Macedon had allied with Hannibal, which led Rome into an alliance with Greece’s
Aetolia League. Rome told Philip of Macedon to leave the Greek states of Rhodes and
Pergamum, he refused, and war was launched in 197 bce. Philip’s phalanx went down.
Rome did not want territory, however, just a weakened Macedonian power. The Greeks
declared independence from Macedon and rejoiced. Rome then declared war on the
Seleucid emperor who had moved on Greece after being urged on by Hannibal and
some of the city-states of Greece who resented Rome’s interference. Rome forced the
emperor out of Asia Minor, claimed a huge war indemnity. By the mid second century
bce anti-Romanism was strong in Greece, particularly among lower class Greeks. In
146 bce after many Greeks supported an attempted Macedonian revival Rome sacked
Corinth as an object lesson. From this point on Greece was under the general
supervision of the Roman government. Rome dominated Egypt, Syria, Pergamum, and
Rhodes in a client and patron style relationship. The areas of Sicily, Sardinia,
Macedonia, Africa, Spain, Asia Minor, and S. Gaul were under Rome’s formal
supervision. In a short period of time, relatively speaking, Rome went from being a
series of interconnected villages to the world power of the Mediterranean.
State and Society
Different types of citizenship existed in Rome. Many wanted full citizenship because of
the benefits. Not only could full citizens vote, they could sue or be sued, marry, inherit,
not be put to death by crucifixion. A citizen was defined as the offspring of two Roman
citizens, although citizenship could be given for extraordinary service to the state. Later,
most people living within the empire would be granted citizenship rights.
Some citizens were the hereditary clients of others and owed them obligations. Client
and patron obligations included credibility and dependability. Patrons would bail their
clients out of jail, represent them in law suits, and arrange good marriages for them in
return for clients singing the praises of the patron and offering the patron respect and
obedience.
In Rome the home was organized with the eldest male at the top of the hierarchy. This
system is called patria potestas. It literally means the power of father, or pater familias
(eldest male) over the life, death, marriage, employment et cetera of all members of the
household. The pater familias had manus, literally, hand, the power to uplift or crush.
Women, as the matrons in a family, were accorded respect and authority. They ran the
house, oversaw slaves, planned meals, and saw to the children. Women were to
uphold the virtues of fidelity, chastity, modesty, and dedication to family. A family
consisted of parents, unmarried kids, slaves, freedmen, and the offspring of both.
Slaves came from wars. Slaves from Spain, Greece, and Africa were the spoils of war.
There were no racial attitudes to slavery. It was misfortune that could befall anyone and
manumission was always a possibility.
Religion of Rome
The religion of pre Etruscan and Greek Rome is difficult to describe with confidence.
There were rituals for appeasing spirits, some evidence of belief in an afterlife. After
contact with the Greeks, the Romans adopted their deities. They included most deities
from the areas they colonized into their own belief system. A state cult developed
focused around the emperor in the Empire period of Roman history.
From Republic to Empire
In 200 bce despite expansion in territory and power the majority of Romans still lived in
central Italy. The rest of Italy was in the hands of a variety of non-Roman cultural,
linguistic, and ethnic groups. Rome had to overcome some weaknesses to become an
Empire. One of these was an unwillingness to expand based on the psychological
assumptions about state and society. Many Romans believed citizens should live within
a days walking distance to capital. Also, 20 families passed the highest office of state,
consul, amongst selves. Only four new families since mid 2nd c bce gained great power.
Land was the basis of Roman life, but latifundia was an issue. Latifundia can be
defined the buying up of huge tracts of land by the rich. Poorer people could not afford
to buy or were bought off the land. Another problem involved taxes. Taxes were raised
for current needs only with surpluses returned to the people. Budget planning was not
done so the government could not respond quickly or efficiently to problems. Also,
Rome had no paid professional administration except at the lowest level. The nobility
gave services for free, were forbidden to take money, and were open to bribery and
graft. The army had to supply their own weapons, food, and clothes until later changes.
Finally, Roman culture was coarse and the reading public small. The transformation of
Rome occurred after contact with the Mediterranean world. The allure of Greece culture
really changed Rome. A growing use of a reading public in grew from contact with the
Greek traditions of rhetoric, oratory, and philosophy.
But as Rome expanded, domestic problems became more pressing. Land problems,
draft riots, disaffected vets, disposed farmers caused a breakdown of the old system.
The biggest problem was the decline of small landowners. They were burdened by
frequent military service, witnessed the destruction of farms by wars, and were unable
to compete with cheap grain from Sicily. Farmers sold out and moved to the city where
the joined the unemployed and discontented
At the same time improved farming methods learned from Greece and Carthage led rich
aristocrats to buy up more and more land, abandon cultivation of grain, and introduce
olive oil and wine cultivation, sheep and the raising of cattle. These were profitable
because slave labor could work the large estates, but an increase in slaves meant
worse treatment and limited opportunities for free labor. The issue was complicated by
the government’s practice of leasing part of territories acquired in conquest of Italy to
anyone willing to pay a tax on crops and animals raised on it. Only the wealthy could
afford to lease large tracts of this “public land” and in time treated it as their own despite
plebeian protests. Corruption in government was also a problem. Graft is the monopoly
on the issuing of state contracts to supply the army, collect taxes, and loan money by
businessmen. Tribunes, who were supposed to represent the people, had become the
tools of Senate and the government by mid 2nd century. Ordinary citizens were
impoverished and landless. Rome swarmed with fortune hunters, imported slaves,
unemployed farmers, and discontented war veterans. The landless could find no work
in the cities or only low paid labor. This was a threat to the army, as landless men could
not serve. The Gracchi brothers were aristocrats who supported land redistribution.
These military commanders recruited supporters from the urban and /rural poor.
Tiberius Gracchus in 133 bce was tribune. He was appalled at the plight of vets and
feared the decline of old Roman values. He proposed dividing public land among the
poor and restoring small landowner. He proposed limiting the holding of public land to
320 acres per male citizen plus 160 acres for each of two grown sons. Public land
would continue to be held by occupants and heirs as private property but rest would be
granted to the poor in plots of 9 or 18 acres. They would pay small rent and be unable
to sell. When it became evident that the council would support Tiberius, the senators
persuaded one of the tribunes to veto the bill. On the grounds that a tribune had
opposed the will of people Tiberius had the tribune deposed. Senate claimed this was
unconstitutional, but the agrarian bill passed. To ensure implementation, Tiberius stood
for reelection, violating custom. Claiming he sought to make himself king, partisans of
the senate murdered him and 300 of his followers. Still, his land bill became law and his
brother Gaius pushed for further reforms. Gaius passed a law providing cheap grain for
the poor and urged that they be sent to colonize Southern Italy and Africa. He proposed
extending citizenship to all Rome’s Italian allies. This last was resisted by Rome’s
proletariat who did not wish to share the privileges of citizenship or control of the tribal
assembly. He was not reelected in 121 and the Senate had many of his followers killed.
He committed suicide. The Senate indicated by these actions that it would not seriously
reform or allow others to do so. Rome will be forced to grant citizenship to Italian allies
after Senate’s failure to address their grievances leads them to open revolt in 90-88bce.
The Senate’s ineptness will also lead to civil wars that destroy the Republic and lead to
the beginning of Empire.
In 59 bce Julius Caesar was elected consul. He campaigned in Gaul, developing a
great reputation as general, increasing loyalty of his troops, and wrote the Gallic Wars.
Some of his allies, led by the general Pompey with him he had shared power as part of
the First Triumvirate, became afraid of Caesar’s popularity and power. They allied with
the Senate to limit his authority.
When the Senate ordered Caesar in 49 bce to disband his army, he marched his army
into N Italy and declared war on Pompey and Senate. Julius Caesar seized Rome in 49
bce and claimed the title dictator for life in 46 bce. He enacted social reforms and
centralized control. He sent landless and poor to form Roman colonies, gave
citizenship to the Gauls, and packed the Senate with non-Italian members making it a
more representative body. He also reduced debts, enacted public works projects,
decreed 1/3 of land workers on great estates had to be freemen men, and was able to
reduce from 320, 000 to 150, 000 the number of men on the free grain dole in Rome.
He also oversaw the reform of the calendar based on Egyptian knowledge.
Unfortunately, he made many enemies. His claim of the title of dictator for life also
offended many senators. He was assassinated in 44 bce. For more on Caesar visit:
http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/caesar.html
Caesar’s heir was his sister Julia’s grandson, Octavius. He was sickly but established
himself in a powerful Second triumvirate of shared power with Marc Anthony and
Lepidus. They defeated Caesars enemies, and for a decade Octavian and Anthony
exercised dictatorial power divided between themselves. Anthony was in charge of the
eastern half of the empire where he became infatuated with Queen Cleopatra. He even
transferred Roman territories to her control. Anthony’s relationship with Cleopatra was
used by Octavian against him in a power struggle. War erupted in 31 bce. Cleopatra
and Anthony were defeated.
http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/Alexandria/History/cleo.html
http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/egypt/history/romans.htm
Octavian announced he would restore the glory of the Republic, but does so by
blending republican institutions with his own leadership. He consulted the Senate on
important matters, allowed it to retain control over Italy and half the provinces, and gave
it legislative functions of the Tribal Assembly. In return, the Senate gave him the title of
Augustus, the revered. He never claims to be emperor, although he is considered as
such by historians. He claimed merely to be first among equals. Very clever!
Augustus Settlement 31 bce-14 ce
Augustus was faced the challenge of rebuilding a Rome disturbed by years of anarchy
and civil war. He wanted to restore the republic, but how was he to fit into this as
Augustus? He called himself princeps civitatis, the first citizen of the state. The title
carried no power. It only said he was the most distinguished of all citizens. Basically,
he was first among equals. His real power lay in the multiple magistracies he controlled
and the powers granted to him by Senate. As consul he had no more power than other
consuls, but he was consul every year unlike other. In addition, the Senate voted him
the right to call the senate into session, represent legislation to the people, defend their
rights, and control of the army, which he made a permanent standing army. It is most
appropriate to call his rule a constitutional monarchy disguised as a republic. Problems
existed. He never found a way to institutionalize his position with the army. The army
was loyal to the generals not the State and by 3rd century ce it would make or break
emperors at will
Administration and Expansion under Augustus
Provincial administration improved. Cities were encouraged to look after their own
affairs allowing for self-government and growing urbanization. There was respect for
local customs. He encouraged the cult of Roma the Goddess and guardian of the state.
In the East the cult of Roma Augustus grew rapidly and was introduced in the west by
14 ce. Every province had a shrine to Roma Augustus
In the west it was not the person of the emperor being worshiped but his spirit. By
praying for the emperor one was praying for the empire. The cult became a symbol of
Roman unity
Under Augustus Rome expanded into Northern and Western Europe and pushed the
Roman frontier into Germany. The conquest of Spain was completed. Roman legions
moved into the Danube, modern Austria, southern Bavaria, West Hungary, Serbia,
Bulgaria, and Romania. Roads were built and settlements rose. Roman trade,
language, and law exerted a civilizing influence on “barbarians.” For the first time many
northern tribal peoples came in direct, continuous contact with Mediterranean culture.
Resistance was aroused, but the lure of wealth in new Roman cities attracted settlers
and raiders
The Julio-Claudian and Flavian Emperors
Augustus was succeeded by four descendants from his family line who ruled from 14-68
ce. Tiberius, who the senate accepted as his successor, was efficient and devoted.
Caligula, Tiberius successor and nephew, was a megalomaniac who demanded to be
worshipped as a God and considered having his horse elected to high office. Under
Claudius’s reign the Roman occupation of Britain began in 43 ce. Nero, Claudius’s
adopted son and successor, was notorious for his immorality, murdered his wife and
mother, and persecuted Christians in Rome. The Julio-Claudian line ended in 68 ce
when Nero was declared a public enemy by Senate. Facing army revolts, he committed
suicide. In the following year four emperors were proclaimed by rival armies, with
Vespasian the final victor. From 69-96 ce the Flavian dynasty (Vespasian, followed by
sons Titus, and Domitian) provided autocratic but effective rule
The Antonines: 5 Good Emperors
The end of autocracy and a return to the Augustan principle of admin of equals
characterized the rule of the Antonine emperors from 96-180 ce. They were selected
on the basis of proven ability and succeeded in establishing confidence and optimism.
Hadrian r 117-138 ce stabilized the boundaries of the empire, gave up indefensible
Armenia and Mesopotamia, erected protective walls in Germany and Britain, founded
new cities, restored old ones, and constructed the Pantheon. For more on the
Pantheon visit:
http://web.kyoto-inet.or.jp/org/orion/eng/hst/roma/pantheon.html
The last of the five good emperors was Marcus Aurelius who ruled from 161-180 ce. He
preferred the study of philosophy and books to the battlefield
Rome was repeatedly troubled by attacked from Parthians and Germans, so he did
campaign He wrote Meditations while on campaign. This is a collection of thoughts
notable for Stoic idealism and love of humanity
Like a good stoic, he died at this post in Vienna.
For more visit:

http://classics.mit.edu/Antoninus/meditations.html
Judaism and Early Christianity
Following Alexander the Great the Ptolomies, then Seleucids, ruled Palestine
The Jews had attempted to create a theocratic community based on the Torah as
contained in the Pentateuch and later books. Religious life centered on the Temple and
in Diaspora communities the synagogues. During the Hellenistic Age, Greek philosophy
and culture was highly influential and contributed to factionalism among Jews.
Religious conflict broke into open war. The Romans appeared during a war period. In
63 bce Pompey made Judea a Roman dependency subject to a Syrian governor Later,
Judea became a Roman administrative unit ruled by a procurator the best known of
whom was Pontius Pilate (r 26-36 ce). The Jews were unhappy and divided under
Roman rule
The Monotheistic Jews considered the Roman state cults blasphemy. Two movements
spread among Jews. Zealots embraced resolute worship of Yahweh and violent
attempts to throw off Roman rule. Militant apocalyptic groups also emerged that
emphasized the old Jewish belief in the coming of a messiah. The belief in a coming
king/priest became fervent and widespread. Many believed the savior would destroy
the Roman Empire and usher in a time of peace and happiness for Jews. One who
prophesied the coming of messiah was John the Baptist. At same time a sect described
in the Dead Sea Scrolls called the Essenes prepared for the end of the world. The
Essenes lived apart in pursuit of anew covenant. They lived in Qumran, a community in
the desert and embraced lives of frugality, communal meals, avoiding oath taking,
anticipation of Messiah, and the end of days at which time God would punish the wicked
For more on the Dead Sea Scrolls visit:
http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/deadsea.scrolls.exhibit/intro.html
http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/wsrp/educational_site/dead_sea_scrolls/
Spiritual turmoil was actually widespread throughout Roman world at this time. New
mystery cults from east: Religions of salvation gave sense of purpose and promise of
afterlife. The Roman roads served as highways of religious expansion. Mithraism was
popular with Roman soldiers. It was a male only cult.
The Cult of Isis was very popular. The State religion did not provide a great deal of
comfort. It was mostly state ritual. Traditional countryside cults of Rome regained
popularity, but nature cults did not provide the sense of salvation that came with the
new mystery cults. Jesus of Nazareth was born into this spiritual ferment ca 4 bce and
lived until ca. 29 ce. He was raised in Galilee, a stronghold of Zealots, but his gospels
report him to have been peaceful
Christianity begins with Jesus but not much is known of his life. He left no writings of
his own. Early Christians, however, wrote a great deal. Between the 2-4th c Christians
settled on a holy book consisting of both the Hebrew bible and a collection of writings by
Christians. Mark is the earliest gospel (ca 60-70ce), the writing of Paul are from 40 ce.
Jesus was a Jew who spoke Aramaic, and maybe some Greek. Born ca. 4 bce, he was
baptized at age 30 by John the Baptist. Jesus appears to have been a charismatic
Jewish teacher who taught devotion to God and love of humanity. His main deviation
from rabbinic tradition was to claim he taught in his own name not the name of Yahweh.
He attracted large crowds through his teaching and miracles. In some ways his
teachings were similar to the most popular group, the Pharisees. The Pharisees
believed that Jewish law was essential but flexible in light of oral tradition. They
emphasized charity to the poor and spoke in parables. Jesus argued similarly. He
criticized the Sadducees, priests, because of their wealth and ritualism. He and the
Pharisees rejected the Zealots as well because of their acts of violence against Rome.
Jesus was not a Pharisee. He went further in rejecting the need to follow the letter of
biblical law by emphasizing inward purity. His taught that “the kingdom of God is at
hand”. Jesus claimed he was acting at the direct order of God and could forgive sins.
He emphasized that God was a loving and forgiving father who welcomed marginalized
groups. The Sermon on the Mount: typifies the message. In it he offers praise for the
poor and humble, scorn for wealth, calls for forgiveness, and emphasized private acts of
charity, prayer, and fasting. In Galilee he was greeted as Messiah, king, but in a
spiritual sense. His talk of a new kingdom coming did not mean he was advocating the
destruction of the Roman Empire. He is purported to have said “render unto Caesar
that which is Caesars.” So, he was speaking of a new spiritual kingdom not a secular
empire. The Pharisees considered his claims to be able to forgive sins blasphemous
and the Sadducees were stung by his criticism. Neither group accepted he was the
Messiah. Jesus did challenge authority in Judaism by teaching and healing in the
Temple of Jerusalem under the eyes of priests that he criticized. The Sadducees
feared trouble as did Pontius Pilate the Prefect of Judea. Pontius cared little what he
was teaching. He was charged with keeping the peace. Crowds following Jesus at the
time of Passover, always a highly emotional time, alarmed Pilate. To avert riot and
bloodshed, he crucified Jesus
The actual events have always been controversial. Most accounts were written after
the First Jewish revolt ca 66-70 and may reflect anti-Jewish sentiment in the empire
Crucifixion was a Roman method of execution, not Jewish. Jesus was executed by
Romans not Jews. He probably appeared in an informal and hurried proceeding in front
of Pilate and the Jewish council. He was crucified on Calvary Hill ca 29/ 30 ce. The
matter seemed closed, but on the 3rd day after the crucifixion a rumor spread through
Jerusalem that Jesus had rose from the dead. Some accused the followers of Jesus of
having stolen and hid the body. Belief in resurrection became over time a central
element of Christian faith. It was a promise that all Christians could achieve spiritual
immortality. His followers spread the message through 30s-40s ce. They were called
Nazarenes
The message spread especially to Hellenized Jews who were less committed to
traditional Jewish doctrines. The first followers had no thought of breaking with
Judaism, but because they adhered to Jewish laws, they had trouble accommodating
non-Jewish converts. This obstacle largely removed when Paul became an influential
leader. Paul of Tarsus ca. 40 ce was the principal figure in the spread of Christianity.
He was a learned Pharisee and Roman citizen, who first persecuted Christians, but in
36 ce converted. He taught that Jesus was the Christ; the anointed one, the Son of
God, who died to atone for humanities sins, and to bring salvation to Jew and Gentile.
He stressed that the law did not lead to salvation, only faith in the messiah would bring
salvation. His missions to convert gentiles, Hellenized Jews, “god-fearers” led to the
separation from Judaism. The Pauline churches prospered and separated from Jewish
customs.
Christianity experienced rapid growth. It strongly appealed to the lower classes, urban
populations, and women. It also appealed to those already attracted to the mystery
cults. By 200 ce an orthodox Christian movement had emerged.
Persecution of Christians
Christianity was perceived as subversive. The refusal of Christians to worship or offer
sacrifice to the state cult on behalf of Emperor was a problem. Some Romans viewed
them as a secret antisocial group. Also, many were pacifists who refused to serve in
the army, denied legitimacy of other sects, and refused to associate with pagans or take
part in social functions. During the first two centuries persecution was sporadic and
local, but in the late 3rd – 4th centuries when the Empire was in danger of collapse, 3
organized efforts were launched to suppress Christianity. The most systematic was
instigated by Emperor Diocletian from 303-311 ce who imposed the death penalty on
anyone who refused to sacrifice to the state cults. In 311 ce Emperor Galerius issued
an edict of toleration making Christianity legal in the east. He realized persecution had
failed to eliminate faith. In 313 ce Emperor Constantine granted Christians freedom of
worship throughout the empire by issuing the Edict of Milan.
All of his successors, save Julian the Apostate (r. 361-363 ce) were Christian
Emperor Theodosius I r. 379-395 ce made Christianity the official religion of the empire,
persecuted pagans, pagan philosophy schools were closed, non-Christian art and
literature was destroyed, and the Olympic games suppressed
Organization of early Christianity
Early Christians believed in the imminent 2nd coming, so they saw no need to organize.
When it became clear that end was not coming soon, they had to organize. At first
there was little distinction between laity and clergy, but growth made necessary special
church officials who could devote full time effort to the religious work of classifying
doctrine, conducting services, and collecting money for charity. The earliest officials
were presbyters (elders), deacons (servers), and bishops (overseers). By the 2 nd
century Christian communities near a main church were administered to by priests who
were responsible. to a bishop who had jurisdiction over a diocese (geographic sector).
Bishops were reputed to be direct successors to the apostles. The term Patriarch is the
title a bishop of an important city such as Rome or Constantinople. The Bishop of
Rome rose to the position of preeminence in the west and was given title of pope. After
the Roman Empire falls in the west politically, the Church remains as the authority
figure. We should turn now to the events leading to crisis, decline, and the “fall” of the
western Empire.
The Roman Crisis of the Third Century
In 3RD century internal anarchy and foreign invasion drastically transformed the Roman
Empire. Despotic absolutist monarchy had replaced constitutional monarchy. The reign
of Commodus r. 180-192 ce foreshadows the crisis. His reign was incompetent,
corrupt, cruel, and neglectful. He was strangled in 192 ce and civil war followed for a
year. The establishment of the Severan Dynasty (193-235 ce) witnessed weak rulers
intimidated by the military whose commanders they attempted to bribe into loyalty. The
last of the dynasty was murdered by his own troops
The “Fall” of the Roman Empire
Internal decay in the Roman Empire, bloody civil wars between generals, Germanic
invasions, new foreign threats, and economic decline all contributed to the end of the
Empire in the west. The barracks emperors, a series of generals seized the throne
between 235 and 284 ce. There were 26, but only one died of natural causes! The
rural tax base declined as latifundia rose, sharecroppers grew, trade declined, the
government refused its own money for taxes. Taxes had to be paid in goods and
services. The Emperor Diocletian (r. 284-305 ce): reconstruction of empire. He was a
rough general with shrewd administrative skills. He diminished the Senate even further,
issued new coins based on gold and silver, and imposed a freeze on prices and wages.
He divided the empire into two administrative districts. A co-emperor ruled each district
with the aid of a powerful lieutenant. His succession scheme failed when Constantine
overcame his rivals to take power and rule from 306-337 ce. He continued Diocletian’s
attempts to reform and revive the economy. He imposed decrees locking people in to
same occupations as their fathers. He also moved the capital to the site of the old
Greek colony of Byzantium renaming it Constantine. This left Rome open to attack, but
preserved the continuation of the Roman government in safer location. We will learn
more about that in our chapter on the Byzantine Empire.
Germanic invasions and the fall of the Western Roman empire
Germanic tribes migrated from Northern Europe prompted by land hunger initially. In
the power vacuum of the later Empire, many tribes moved into Rome after 180. The
Visigoths, settled agriculturalists, adopted Roman law and Christianity. Roman
authorities kept many Germanic peoples on the borders as a buffer and by 3 rd century
invited them to settle to help fend off invasions. They were also invited into the Roman
army. By the 4th century the bulk of Roman generals in the west were German. The
balance was disrupted when the Huns from Central Asia under the leadership of Attila
attacked Europe in the mid 5th century ce. Germanic people streamed into the Roman
Empire. In 372 ce they crossed the Volga river and subjugated easternmost Germanic
tribes, the Ostrogoths. The terrified Visigoths petitioned Rome for permission to settle
as allies in Rome. Permission was granted and in 376 ce the entire tribe settled in
Rome, but corrupt Roman officials abused them and the Germans went on a rampage.
Valens, the Eastern Roman Emperor tried to stop them but lost his army and life at
Adrianople in 378 ce. This battle destroyed the legend of the invincible Roman army
and ushered in a century and half of chaos. The Visigoth Alaric invaded and sacked
Rome in 410 ce. The weak western Rome ceded Southern Gaul to the Visigoths who
ruled there until the Muslim conquests of the 8th century. Romans withdrew troops from
Britain and Rhine frontier in an attempt to defend Italy, but were unable to hold off the
Vandal tribe in Gaul and Spain. The Vandals sacked Rome in 455, the Franks moved
cross Gaul, the Angles, Jutes, and Saxons invaded Britain, and meanwhile Huns
crossed the Rhine in 451 planning to attack Rome. Fortunately they were held in
northern Italy as disease, lack of supplies, and the dramatic appeal of Pope Leo I
caused Attila to return to Eastern Europe. Attila died in 453 and the threat from the
Huns was over. When the Emperor Theodosius I dies in 395 ce the Empire was divided
between his sons. The weakened empire retreated from Rome to Northern Ravenna,
the imperial army was basically Germanic. In 475 Orestes, a German general, forced
the Senate to elect his son Romulus Augustus Emperor of the Western Empire. The
next year the Germanic General Odovacar murdered the Roman emperor. 476 ce is
the traditional date of the fall of western Rome. No emperor designated to succession.
Imperial authority only afterwards survived in the eastern half of the empire. The
eastern Emperor in Constantinople commissioned Theodoric, king of the Germanic
Ostrogoths, to lead his people into Rome and establish order. The Ostrogoth kingdom
of Rome, now with a capital of Ravenna, restored order, but unity steadily declined. We
see afterwards a change from old Roman order to a mixed Germanic and roman society
in the west. Christianity is the most prominent survivor of the collapse of the Empire.
The Church became increasingly institutionalized. An established standardized
hierarchy of church officials was put in place with the Bishop of Rome becoming the
pope; basically, the spiritual leader on the west. When the Roman Empire collapsed,
Christianity served as the cultural foundation.
The Silk Road
The Classical era witnessed the growth and consolidation of vast empires such as
Rome, China, and Parthia. This was a time of relative political stability, economic
prosperity, and close proximity of borders that encouraged an unprecedented growth in
long-distance trade. Regular land and sea routes, known collectively as the silk roads,
became established thoroughfares for the spread of good and cultures. This had
several consequences;
1.
Regions began to specialize in certain products that were particularly valuable as
trade goods.
2.
Merchants, traders, mariners, and bankers became much more wealthy and
influential than ever before
3.
Merchants, travelers, and missionaries carried popular religious beliefs to distant
lands via the Silk Road. Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Mithraism in particular
became much more widespread.
4.
Disease pathogens were carried to populations that had no immunities to them,
causing epidemics throughout Eurasia. Inadvertently these epidemics contributed to
the downfall of the Han and Roman empires.
For more visit:
http://www.ess.uci.edu/~oliver/silk.html
Long distance trade and Silk Road networks
The routes of the soilk road expanded long distance travel. Zhang Qian’s mission to
the west directly introduced China to the west. He was held by the nomadic steppe
people, the Xiongnu, for years during his travels. Eventually, though, he told Han Wudi
of the possibility of establishing trade relations with the Bactrians. Han Wudi subdued
the Xiongnu thereby opening up safe trade routes. Important developments of the
classical era reduced the risks of travel. Rulers invested in constructing roads and
bridges. Large empires expanded until borders were closer. Exchanges between India
and Bactria in the east and the Mediterranean Basin in the west increased. Overland
trade routes linked China and the Roman Empires. Sea lanes joined Asia, Africa, and
Mediterranean basin into one network. Silk and spices traveled west. Central Asia
produced large horses and jade which were sold in China. The Roman Empire
provided glassware, jewelry, artwork, perfumes, and textiles.
Cultural and biological exchange along the Silk Road
The spread of Buddhism and Hinduism was facilitated by the Silk Road. Buddhism
traveled throughout central Asia and China. It was first present in the oasis towns of
central Asia, then further spread to the steppe lands along the Silk Road, and then into
Southeast Asia. Christianity spread in the Mediterranean Basin. Missionaries like
Gregory the Wonderworker attracted converts. By the 3rd century ce Christianity was
flourishing in the Mediterranean Basin. Christianity in SW Asia follows trade routes. By
the 2nd century sizable Christian communities existed in Mesopotamia and Iran. By the
7th century ce there were converts in SW Asia. Their ascetic practices influenced
Roman Christianity. The Nestorian sect developed in the 5th century ce. Nestorians
emphasized the human nature of Jesus. Nestorian communities existed in central Asia,
India, and China by 7thc century ce. For more visit:
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10755a.htm
The spread of Manichaeism is the best example of a religion spreading on the silk road.
The Prophet Mani, a Zoroastrian, drew on Christianity and Buddhism. He preached
dualism and a belief in the cosmic struggle between light and darkness, good and evil.
He offered the means to achieve personal salvation through the embrace of an ascetic
lifestyle and high ethical standards. Manichaeism appealed to merchants and attracted
converts first in the Mediterranean Region. It had appeared in all the large cities of
Roman Empire by the 3rd century. Followers were persecuted by the Sasanids and
Romans, but survived in central Asia. For more:
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09591a.htm
http://www-rcf.usc.edu/~sbriggs/Britannica/manichaeism.htm
Spread of epidemic disease
Common epidemics in Rome and China were of smallpox, measles, and bubonic
plague. In the Roman Empire the population dropped by a ¼ from the 1st to 10th cent
ce from disease. In China, the population dropped by a ¼ from the 1 st-7th cent ce. Both
the Chinese and Roman economies contracted. Small regional economies emerged.
Epidemics weakened the Han and Roman empires.
For more on the bubonic plague:
http://www.themiddleages.net/plague.html
We will discuss Christianity and Western Europe more in our upcoming chapters on the
Middle Ages in Western Europe.
Chapter 6
Mediterranean Society: The Roman
Phase
1
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Establishment of Rome
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Legend of Romulus and Remus
Rome Founded 753 BCE
Indo-European migrants c. 2000 BCE
Bronze c. 1800 BCE, Iron c. 900 BCE
2
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The Etruscans
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Originally from Anatolia
Colonized Roman regions
Society declines late 6th c. BCE
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Greek maritime attacks
Celtic invasions from north
3
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The Kingdom of Rome
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Monarchy through 7th-6th c. BCE
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Streets, temples, public buildings
Major center of trade routes
4
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Establishment of the Republic
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509 BCE Romans overthrow last Etruscan
king
Roman forum built
Republican constitution
Executive: 2 consuls
senate
5
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Social Conflict
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Patricians (aristocrats)
Plebeians (commoners)
Major class conflict 5th c. BCE
Plebeians allowed to elect tribunes for
representation
Rights expanded through 3rd c. BCE
Yet 6-month appointments of dictators
6
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Expansion of the Republic
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Dominated Etruscans
Took over iron industry 5th-4th c. BCE
Expansion via military threat and incentives
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Tax exemptions
Trade privileges
Citizenship
7
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The Punic Wars
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Conflict with Carthage, 264-164 BCE
Three major wars over Sicilian grain supply
Later conflict with declining Hellenistic Empires
Rome dominates Mediterranean by middle of 2nd C.
BCE
8
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Imperial Expansion and Domestic
Problems
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Land distribution
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Perennial problem
Development of large latifundia
Unfair competition for smaller landholders
9
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The Roman Empire to 146 BCE
10
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The Gracchi Brothers
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Tiberius and Gaius
Attempted to limit land holdings of aristocrats
Assassinated
Development of private armies made up of landless
peasants
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Gaius Marius (with reformers)
Lucius Cornelius Sulla (with aristocrats)
11
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Civil War
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87 BCE Gaius Marius takes Rome
Lucius Cornelius Sulla drives Marius out 83
BCE
Reign of terror follows
12
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Julius Caesar
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Nephew of Marius
Escapes Sulla’s terror
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Rises to popularity
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Relatively young, well-timed trip abroad
Public spectacles, victories in Gaul
Attacks Rome 49 BCE
Names self Dictator for life in 46 BCE
13
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Caesar’s Policies
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Centralized military, governance under personal control
Redistribution of land to war veterans, other allies
Major building projects reduce urban unemploymnent
Extended citizenship to provinces
Aristocrats threatened, assassinate Caesar in 44 BCE
14
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Augustus
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Civil conflict follows death of Caesar
Nephew Octavian fights Mark Antony &
Cleopatra
Takes title Augustus 27 BCE
15
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Augustus’ Administration
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Monarchy disguised as a republic
Increasing centralization of political, military
power
Stablilized empire
Death in 14 CE
16
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Expansion and Integration of Empire
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Roman occupation of increasingly remote areas
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Gaul, Germany, Britain, Spain
Coordination of crop production, transport of natural
resources
Developed infrastructure, cities emerge
17
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The Roman Empire, c. 117 CE
18
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Pax Romana: “Roman Peace”
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27-250 CE
Facilitated trade, communication
Roadwork
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Curbs, drainage, milestones
Postal service
19
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Roman Law
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Twelve Tables, c. 450 BCE
Adapted to diverse populations under Roman
Rule
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Innocent until proven guilty
Right to challenge accusers in court
20
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Commercial Agriculture and Trade
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Latifundia: production for export
Regional specialization increases
Integration of Empire-wide economy
Mediterranean Sea: Mare Nostrum, “our sea”
21
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The City of Rome
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Cash flow
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Massive construction projects
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Taxes, tribute, spoils, commerce
Statuary, monumental architecture, aqueducts
Technology: concrete
22
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Roman Attractions
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Imported goods
Underground sewage
Circus Maximus
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250,000 spectators
Colosseum
Gladitorial Games
23
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Family and Society
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Pater Familias: “father of the family”
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Right to arrange marriages, sell children into
slavery
Women not allowed to inherit property
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Rarely enforced
24
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Wealth and Social Change
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Newly rich challenge aristocracy
Yet poor class increasing in size
Distraction: “Bread and Circuses”
25
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Slavery
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2nd c. CE: estimated at 1/3 of Empire population
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Customary manumission at age 30
Agricultural work, quarries, mines
Chain labor
Revolt under Spartacus, 73 BCE
26
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Roman Deities
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Polytheistic
Major gods
Tutelary deities
Absorption of gods from other cultures
27
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Cicero and Stoicism
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Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-46 BCE)
Major orator, writer
Influenced by Greek thought
Proponent of Stoicism
28
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Mithraism
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From Zoroastrian myth: god of Sun, light
Roman version emphasizes strength, courage,
discipline
Women not admitted into cult
Appealed to military
Cult of Isis also popular
29
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Judaism in Early Rome
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Jewish monotheism at odds with most ancient
cultures
Refusal to recognize state gods
Repeated Jewish rebellions
Romans finally crush Jewish self-governance in
Jewish Wars (66-70 CE)
30
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Synagogue at Capernaum
31
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The Essenes
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Messianic Jewish Cult
Baptism
Ascetic lifestyle
Dead Sea Scrolls
32
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Jesus of Nazareth
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Jewish teacher
Moral code, reputation for miracle-working
Romans fear instigation of rebellion, crucify
Jesus
33
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Jesus’ Early Followers
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Belief in Jesus’ resurrection, divine nature
Title Christ: “Anointed One”
Teachings recorded in New Testament
34
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Paul of Tarsus
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Extends teachings far beyond Jewish circles
Intensive travel, missionary activity
35
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Early Christian Communities
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Local leaders: Bishops
Regional variation in doctrine and ritual
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Nature of resurrection
Role of women
Gradual acceptance of core texts
36
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Growth of Early Christianity
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Roman persecution
Yet dramatic expansion of Christianity
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Especially with dispossessed, disenfranchised
classes
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Urban poor
women
37
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Rome & the Silk Road
Expansion
Cross-cultural Exchanges on the Silk
Roads
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Long-Distance Travel in the Ancient
World
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Lack of police enforcement outsied of
established settlements
Changed in classical period
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Improvement of infrastructure
Development of empires
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Trade Networks Develop
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Dramatic increase in trade due to Greek
colonization
Maintenance of roads, bridges
Discovery of Monsoon wind patterns
Increased tariff revenues used to maintain
open routes
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Trade in the Hellenistic World
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Bactria/India
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Persia, Egypt
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Grain
Mediterranean
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Spices, pepper, cosmetics, gems, pearls
Wine, oil, jewelry, art
Development of professional merchant class
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The Silk Roads
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Named for principal commodity from China
Dependent on imperial stability
Overland trade routes from China to Roman
Empire
Sea Lanes and Maritime trade as well
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The Silk Roads, 200 BCE-300 CE
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Organization of Long-Distance Trade
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Divided into small segments
Tariffs and tolls finance local supervision
Tax income incentives to maintain safety,
maintenance of passage
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Cultural Trade: Buddhism and Hinduism
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Merchants carry religious ideas along silk
routes
India through central Asia to east Asia
Cosmopolitan centers promote development
of monasteries to shelter traveling merchants
Buddhism becomes dominant faith of silk
roads, 200 BCE-700 CE
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The Spread of Hinduism, Buddhism and
Christianity, 200 BCE – 400 CE
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Buddhism in China
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Originally, Buddhism restricted to foreign
merchant populations
Gradual spread to larger population
beginning 5th c. CE
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Buddhism and Hinduism in SE Asia
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Sea lanes in Indian Ocean
1st c. CE clear Indian influence in SE Asia
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Rulers called “rajas”
Sanskrit used for written communication
Buddhism, Hinduism increasingly popular faiths
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Christianity in Mediterranean Basin
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Gregory the Wonderworker, central Anatolia 3rd c.
CE
Christianity spreads through Middle East, North
Africa, Europe
Sizeable communities as far east as India
Judaism, Zoroastrianism also practiced
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Christianity in SW Asia
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Influence of ascetic practices from India
Desert-dwelling hermits, monastic societies
After 5th c. CE, followed Nestorios
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Emphasized human nature of Jesus
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Spread of Manichaeism
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Mani Zoroastrian prophet (216-272 CE)
Influenced by Christianity and Buddhism
Dualist
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good vs. evil
light vs. dark
spirit vs. matter
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Manichaean Society
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Devout: “the Elect”
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Ascetic lifestyle
Celibacy, vegetarianism
Life of prayer and fasting
Laity: “the Hearers”
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Material supporters of “the Elect”
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Decline of Manichaeism
◼
◼
Spread through silk routes to major cities in
Roman Empire
Zoroastrian opposition provokes Sassanid
persecution
❑
◼
Mani arrested, dies in captivity
Romans, fearing Persian influence, also
persecute
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The Spread of Epidemic Disease
◼
◼
◼
◼
Role of trade routes in spread of pathogens
Limited data, but trends in demographics reasonably
clear
Smallpox, measles, bubonic plague
Effect: Economic slowdown, move to regional selfsufficiency
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Epidemics in the Han and Roman
Empires
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Internal Decay of the Han State
◼
◼
◼
Court intrigue
Formation of actions
Problem of land distribution
❑
◼
◼
Large landholders develop private armies
Epidemics
Peasant rebellions
❑
184 CE Yellow Turban Rebellion
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Collapse of the Han Dynasty
◼
◼
◼
◼
Generals assume authority,
reduce Emperor to puppet
figure
Alliance with landowners
200 CE Han Dynasty
abolished, replaced by 3
kingdoms
Immigration of northern
nomads increases
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Sinicization of Nomadic Peoples
◼
◼
“China-fication”
Adoption of sedentary lifestyle
❑
◼
Agriculture
Adoption of Chinese names, dress,
intermarriage
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Popularity of Buddhism and Daoism
◼
◼
◼
Disintegration of political order casts doubt on
Confucian doctrines
Buddhism, Daoism gain popularity
Religions of salvation
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Fall of the Roman Empire: Internal
Factors
◼
◼
◼
◼
The Barracks Emperors
235-284 26 claimants to the throne, all but one killed
in power struggles
Epidemics
Disintegration of imperial economy in favor of local
and regional self-sufficient economies
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Diocletan (r. 284-305 CE)
◼
◼
Divided empire into two administrative districts
Co-Emperors, dual Lieutenants
❑
◼
◼
◼
“Tetrarchs”
Currency, budget reform
Relative stability disappears after Diocletans’s
death, civil war follows
Constantine emerges victorious
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Fall of the Roman Empire: External
Factors
◼
Visigoths, influenced by Roman law, Christianity
❑
◼
◼
◼
Formerly buffer states for Roman Empire
Attacked by Huns under Attila in 5th c. CE
Massive migration of Germanic peoples into Roman
Empire
Sacked Rome in 410 CE, established Germanic
emperor in 476 Ce
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Germanic invasions and the fall of the western
Roman empire, 450-476 C.E.
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Cultural Change in the Roman Empire
◼
Growth of Christianity
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❑
❑
◼
Constantine’s Vision, 312 CE
Promulgates Edict of Milan, allows Christian
practice
Converts to Christianity
380 CE Emperor Theodosius proclaims
Christianity official religion of Roman Empire
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St. Augustine (354-430 CE)
◼
◼
◼
◼
Hippo, North Africa
Experimented with Greek thought,
Manichaeism
387 converts to Christianity
Major theologian
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The Institutional Church
◼
Conflicts over doctrine and practice in early
Church
❑
❑
◼
Divinity of Jesus
Role of women
Church hierarchy established
❑
Patriarchs, Bishop of Rome primus inter pares
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Chapter 9: The Western Hemisphere: Mesoamerica and
South America
We move now from Central and East Asia to the Americas. Urbanization in East
Asia and the Americas is similar. Major cities began as cosmo-magical shrine
centers/shaman priest rulers. This is just a fancy way of saying that the major urban
centers were probably first magical centers in which a priest or ritual specialist like a
shaman held power. Over time these centers became cities with a priest-king ruler.
Unlike East Asian civilizations, in Mesoamerica cities were not built on major river
banks, but along coasts. Also, no metal tools were initially used in the Americas.
Very little metal was used at all outside of ornaments and art. In the early period, no
wheel was invented and no draft animals were domesticated.
Origins, migration, and agriculture
How did people make it to the Americas? It really depends who you ask.
Archaeologists assert that humans arrived in the Americas ca. 15,000-40,000 yrs
ago over the Beringia land bride (from Asia to Alaska and Siberia). For more
information see:
http://www.nps.gov/archive/bela/html/history.htm
This was the Pleistocene epoch; the time of the last great ice age. Early arrivers 1 st
established settlements in Siberia. They built underground shelters and survived by
hunting large mammals. The ice age locked up sea water which exposed a land
bridge to North America. This bridge disappeared around 10, 000 years ago.
Colonists crossed the bridge and entered the Americas. They were able to spread
and colonize rapidly. Other theories suggest that there may have also been
voyages by sea from Iceland and Greenland, and across the Pacific into Chili and
Peru. Early archeological evidence indicates a semi-uniform culture existed in the
Americas. It has been named the Clovis culture and evidence has it existing from
11, 200 years ago from Mexico to Nova Scotia. Given the age of this culture,
evidence would suggest 20, 000 for the date of American settlements. This would
give ample time for people to have spread throughout the area. Some think this
could be pushed back later, but this is disputed. Some Native Americans assert that
their people have always been in the Americas. Evidence may be uncovered that
proves this to be the case, or that would push back the age of arrival to a much later
date. New research is being conducted in South America that may indicate a wave
of colonization from Africa. Your Taking Sides assignment for this week, Issue 3,
“Was Mesoamerica’s Olmec civilization Influenced by African Sources?” addresses
this discussion. Please be sure to read it. Well, you must read it as it is your
discussion this week (due Sunday March 4th by midnight).
What we do see is the development of eight major ethno-linguistic groups and
hundreds of subgroups. Research suggests that 75 million people lived in Americas
on the eve of European exploration
Agriculture took off early in the Americas. By 7000 bce we see the development of
some agriculture. By 5000 bce maize gathering was supplementing hunting. By
3000 bce beans and squashes were being cultivated.
Early Mesoamerican urbanization
By 2000 bce the foundations existed for urban development (agriculture). Slash and
burn cultivation was being used and irrigation systems had been developed.
Olmec civilization along Gulf Coast (Veracruz/Tabasco)
The Olmecs rose to dominance in Mexico by 1500 bce. They are also known as the
Rubber people due to their use of rubber. Some anthropologists consider them the
mother culture of all pre-Hispanic Mexico. Their civilization was centered in 5 regions:
Oaxaca, inland Valley of Mexico, along the Mexico-Guatemalan border, the southern
highlands and lowlands of Yucatan (developed into Maya), Honduras, Guatemala, and
Veracruz. They were exceptionally wealthy, technically efficient, and artistic. They
venerated the Jaguar as powerful supernatural being. They practiced chinampas
agriculture. This is a system of raised fields created by piling up mud and natural
vegetation into raised grids of land crisscrossed by natural irrigation channels. They
built pyramids, temples, stone altars, and stelae from around 1200 bce. They also
erected giant stone (basalt) heads. These heads are 8-10 ft high and weighed 20-40
tons. Some appear to be wearing helmets and to have foreign features. Some
archeologists suggest they may have been floated to their location since the stone
comes from 50 miles away.
The Olmec people understood the concept of zero, developed a calendar, and had a
hieroglyphic writing system. They highly influenced subsequent Maya culture. Trade
goods from the Olmec have been found in Central America. For more information and
images see:
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/latinamerica/meso/cultures/olmec.html
The ball game may have originated with the Olmec. The ball game was played in many
areas of Mesoamerica. The game had many versions. It could be played with two
people or two teams. The goal in most was to knock a heavy rubber ball into the
opponent’s side of the court. In some versions the goal was to place the ball through a
circular goal, like in basketball. Usually the ball was thrown into play and then could
only be hit using body parts other than the hands, and no kicking was allowed. Men,
women, and children played the game. It was very violent. Sometimes the ball game
was played for ritual purposes, not for entertainment (although the ritual probably had
entertainment value as well). Sometimes the game was played using war captives.
The loosing team would be sacrificed to the deities. See the following web site for more
information:
http://www.ballgame.org/
In the year 900 bce one Olmec center was destroyed by invaders. The Olmec held on
but by 400 ce they had ceased to be influential. The decline of the Olmec may have
allowed for the rise of Teotihuacan in Valley of Mexico. The main city of the
Teotihuacan civilization was the City of the Gods. It was located 30 miles North East of
Mexico City. By 200 bce it began to grow and by 550 ce at peak. At that time it was the
6th largest city in the world with a population of 125, 000-200, 000. The city was laid out
on a grid with paved plaster foundation upon which city structures were built. The
economy was based on agriculture, obsidian mining, and trade. They had knowledge of
writing and books. They were organized by a well-defined class structure. They had a
260 day sacred calendar. They built huge ceremonial centers. In 150 ce a huge
pyramid associated with the sun and a smaller pyramid shrine to the moon were
constructed. Temples at the summit of the pyramids were reached by staircases
Rituals were performed and sacrifices were offered in the temples. They were highly
decorated with frescos and decorative wall panels engraved with images of the Gods.
Just as we learned about in Egypt, craftspeople from all over Mexico came to work on
temple pyramids. Over time an elite priestly class developed. Priests, civil officials,
military leaders, and merchants lived lives of great luxury.
This civilization also played the ball game described in the section on the Olmec.
Around 650 ce the city burned and plundered deliberately. By 750 ce the power of the
Teotihuacan was gone. For more information visit:
http://archaeology.la.asu.edu/teo/
Maya civilization: 300-900s ce
Research on the Maya civilization really began in 1841. The Maya were the largest
homogeneous group of indigenous people north of Peru inhabiting Mexico, the Yucatan
peninsula, parts of Tabasco, Chiapas, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador.
The earliest Mayas probably migrated from the North West coast of California during the
3rd millennium bce. The Maya were highly influenced by the Olmec and Teotihuacan
cultures. There were over 100 major political centers each with its own temple, palace,
observatory, and ball court. To cite just two: Tikal 300-900 ce was powerful between
300-900 ce, Chichen Itza until 900 ce, but many areas declined around 800 ce. . Most
centers were Farming cultures. The cultivation of: maize, beans, squash, chili, cotton,
and cacao was done on terraced, irrigated farms. The Maya were also involved in trade.
They exchanged metalwork, cotton cloth, stone tools, and polished beads. Most
settlements were near water holes. We have read in previous chapters about the
importance of water for urbanization. The Maya were organized in a hierarchical
fashion. Kings, priests and nobility were on top of the social strata. The hereditary
priest king was believed to be descended from God. A priest-king governed each
center and was assisted by a council of priests and nobles. Merchants were usually
from the ruling classes and served as ambassadors. Farther down the social hierarchy
were professional architects and artisans important, followed by the majority: peasants
and slaves Land allocation for farming was based on clan membership. They may have
had a matriarchal structure in the early years. Evidence exists of powerful queens and
legal rights for women, but over time the society became more patriarchal. The custom
develops of men being served food by women and men eating first.
The Maya constructed elaborate pyramids. They practiced elaborate burials and
extensive sacrifices. They conducted both human sacrifice and blood letting. In some
cases the blood letting was done by the king. His blood was considered sacred and
therefore a more meaningful sacrifice to the deities. Blood was offered to propitiate the
deities. By offering blood one hoped to renew the fertility of the earth and its people and
animals. Human sacrifice was sometimes conducted on a large scale.
The Maya had a written language of highly complex hieroglyphics. While they wrote
extensively, only 4 books survive. The Spanish burned most of the books soon after
their arrival to break the Maya people from practicing their religion and culture. They
had a sophisticated solar and ritual calendar system based on 18 month of 20 days
each. Their knowledge of astronomy and math was quite advanced. View:
http://www.michielb.nl/maya/
It appears that in later times there was constant warfare among shaman kings and
profoundly religious city states. They fought in search of captives for slaves and
sacrifice. There may also have been a decline in resources due to environmental
damage or climatic changes that led to increased warfare.
Religion:
One of ten books that survived is called Popol Vuh. It contains the Mayan creation
myth. It teaches that the Gods created humans out of maize and water. The Gods
maintain the agricultural cycles in exchange for honors and sacrifice. Bloodletting
rituals honored the Gods gift of rain. The ball game had religious significance, as well
as being a sport. It was probably used to honor the Gods and offer them the sacrifice of
war captives in times of drought or famine.
For more view:
http://www.civilization.ca/civil/maya/mmc03eng.html
Around 900 ce the decline of the Maya began. The decline may be due to insufficient
food supply, earthquakes, invasions, internal rebellion. Some of the people remained in
the area, others moved north. The Maya were replaced as the dominate power by the
Toltecs. We will learn more about the Toltec people later in week 17 of the course. For
now, let us take a look at South America.
Urbanization in South America
Comparison and Contrast with Mesoamerica
Both constructed religious shrine centers that dominate culture
Both had extensive trade networks
Both came to power at similar times and declined at similar times
In contrast: the geography of each region differed.
Early migration to Peru and Bolivian Region
By 12,000 bce hunting gathering people reached S. America. By 8000 bce they had
experimented with agriculture and by 1000 bce complex societies emerged.
These are known as the Andean societies of the regions of modern-day Peru and
Bolivia
Early Agriculture
The agriculture consisted of the cultivation of beans, peanuts, sweet potatoes, and
cotton. Fishing supplemented agriculture. By 1800 bce, the poeple were producing
pottery, and temples and pyramids
Urbanization in the Andes Mountain
Urban centers were built high up along mountains of the Andes around 900-300 bce.
AS noted, these were farming societies, but they also produced cotton and fishing nets
for trade. They discovered gold, silver, and copper metallurgy which they used for
artistic purposes. The Chavin Cult developed in the Andean region. It linked the people
together by a shared religious tradition. The Andean region became a: pilgrimage
center for the whole of South America. The Chavin Cult had a pantheon of gods of
animal and human shape, but since they did not make use of writing it is difficult to write
more about the religion.
For more:
http://www.plu.edu/~gehrssa/page4.html
Coastal Civilizations and networks
Along the coast of South America the Moche dominated between 300 ce -600 ce. They
constructed an irrigation system and conducted trade along the coast. They also
appear to have lacked a writing system, but did erect spectacular monuments and
important tombs. Their art was sophisticated, they practiced metallurgy and conducted
warfare. We will come back to South America in Week 17 to discuss the Inca.
Early societies in Oceana
Early human migrants arrived in Australia and New Guinea 60, 000 bce. By the first
millennium, human communities had been established on all the hospitable islands of
the Pacific Ocean. Around 10, 000 bce rising seas separated Australia and New
Guinea. Australia remained isolated until the 19th century. They hunted and gathered
until the 19th century.
For further research on Australia visit:
http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/aussieed/tertiary_history.htm
In New Guinea agriculture developed around 3000 bce. Austronesian people from
South East Asia were seafarers who reached New Guinea around 3000bce and
introduced root crops and the herding animals
Peopling of Pacific Islands
Austronesian migration to Polynesia was done via outrigger canoes. From Polynesia,
the Austronesians migrated to Micronesia and Madagascar. They established what is
known as the Lapita society from New Guinea to Tonga ca. 1500-500 bce. Agricultural
villages grew and pottery with geometric designs was produced for domestic use and
trade. Networks of trade linked the islands. Pottery, obsidian, shells, and tools were
exchanged. After 500 bce trade declined and the cultures on each island develop
independently. Many islands developed the concept of hierarchical chiefdoms. These
divine/semi-divine chiefs conducted or oversaw public rituals and organized labor. We
will return to these areas later in the class. After writing your newest Taking Sides
discussion, (see the syllabus or discussion board), move on to the chapter in Tradition
and Encounters on The Empires of Persia. Also read our posted lecture, and view the
Power Point.
Chapter 9
Early Societies in the Americas and Oceania
1
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Early Mesoamerican societies, 1200
B.C.E.-1100 C.E.
2
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Origins of Mesoamerican Societies
◼
Migration across Bering land bridge?
❑
◼
◼
◼
Probably 13,000 BCE, perhaps earlier
By sea from Asia?
By 9500 BCE reached southernmost part of South
America
Hunter/Gatherer societies
❑
evolve into agricultural societies
3
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Olmecs
◼
◼
◼
1200-100 BCE
The “Rubber People”
Ceremonial Centers
❑
◼
San Lorenzo, La Venta, Tres Zapotes
Olmec Heads
❑
❑
❑
Up to 10 ft tall, 20 tons
Transported by dragging, rolling on logs
1000/workers per head
4
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Agriculture and Herding
◼
◼
Staple: maize
Herding: turkeys, barkless dogs
❑
◼
Both food
No draft animals
❑
No development of wheeled vehicles
5
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Olmec Society
◼
◼
Probably authoritarian in nature
Large class of conscripted laborers to construct
ceremonial sites
❑
Also tombs for rulers, temples, pyramids, drainage
systems
6
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Mysterious Decline of Olmecs
◼
◼
◼
◼
Ceremonial centers destroyed
No evidence of warfare
Revolution?
Civil war?
7
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Maya
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◼
◼
◼
huge cities discovered in 19th c.
300 BCE-900 CE
Terrace Farming
Cacao beans
❑
❑
◼
hot chocolate
Currency
Major ceremonial center at Tikal
8
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Maya Warfare
◼
◼
Warfare for purposes of capturing enemy soldiers
Ritual sacrifice of enemies
❑
❑
Enslavement
Small kingdoms engage in constant conflict until
Chichén Itzá begins to absorb captives
◼
◼
Some nevertheless choose death
Center of empire develops
9
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Mayan Ritual Calendar
◼
Complex math
❑
◼
Calendar of 365.242 days (17 seconds off)
❑
❑
◼
Invention of “Zero”
Solar calendar of 365 days
Ritual calendar of 260 days
Management of calendar lends authority to
priesthood
❑
Timing of auspicious moments for agriculture
10
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Mayan Language and Religion
◼
Ideographs and a syllable-alphabet
❑
❑
◼
◼
Most writings destroyed by Spanish conquerors
Deciphering work begins in 1960s
Popol Vuh: Mayan creation myth
Importance of bloodletting rituals
❑
❑
Human sacrifices follow after removal of fingers,
piercing to allow blood flow
Self-mutilation of penises, earlobes
11
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The Maya Ball Game
◼
◼
◼
◼
Ritual form of ball game
High-ranking captives, prisoners of war
contestants
Execution of losers immediately follows the
match
Bloodletting ritual for the gods
12
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City of Teotihuacan
◼
◼
◼
Highlands of Mexico
Lakes in area of high elevation
Village of Teotihuacan, 500 BCE, expands to
become massive city
❑
◼
◼
Important ceremonial center
Extensive trade network, influenced surrounding
areas
Begins to decline c. 650 CE, sacked in middle of
8th century, massive library destroyed
13
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Andean Societies
◼
◼
◼
◼
Migration into South
America c. 12000 BCE
Climate improves c. 8000
BCE
Largely independent from
Mesoamerica
Highly individualized due
to geography
14
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Chavin Cult
◼
◼
New religion in central Andes, 900-300 BCE
South America, contemporary Peru
❑
❑
Little known about particulars of religion
Intricate stone carvings
15
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The Mochica State
◼
◼
◼
◼
Valley of the Moche River
Dominated northern Peru, 300-700 CE
Painting survies
One of many states in region, none able to
consolidate into empire
16
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Early societies of Oceania, 1500
B.C.E.-700 C.E.
17
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Oceania
◼
◼
◼
◼
Prehistoric land bridges, lower seas permit
migration
Outrigger canoes for open-sea travel
Early hunter-gatherer societies in Australia
Early agriculture in New Guinea
18
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Aborigine of the Naomi Tribe
19
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Lapita Peoples
◼
◼
◼
◼
Found throughout Pacific Islands
Agriculture, animal herding
Political organization based on chiefdoms
Trade over open ocean declines 500 BCE
❑
Greater independence of settlements
20
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Aztecs, Inca, and Later
Oceania
Worlds Apart: The Americas and
Oceania21
21
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States and Empires in Mesoamerica and
North America
◼
Societies had limited or no contact with
Africa, Asia, Europe
❑
❑
◼
Brief presence of Scandinavians in
Newfoundland, Canada
Some Asian contact with Australia
Mesoamerica in period of war and conquest,
8th century CE
22
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The Toltecs
◼
Regional states in central Mexican valley
❑
❑
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Toltecs migrate from north-west Mexico, settle at
Tula (near modern Mexico city)
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❑
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Religious and cultural influence of collapsed Teotihuacan
Intense warfare
High point of civilization: 950-1150 CE
Urban population of 60,000, another 60,000 in surrounding
area
Subjugation of surrounding peoples
Civilization destroyed by internal strife, nomadic
incursions 1175 CE
23
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The Mexica
◼
◼
◼
◼
One of several groups of migrants, mid 13th c.
CE
Tradition of kidnapping women, seizing
cultivated lands
Settled c. 1375 CE in Tenochtitlan (later
becomes Mexico City)
Dredged soil from lake bottom to create fertile
plots of land
❑
Chinampas, up to 7 crops per year
24
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The Aztec Empire
◼
◼
◼
Mexica develop tributary empire by 15th
century
Itzcóatl (1428-1440), Motecuzouma I
(Montezuma, 1440-1469)
Joined with Texcoco and Tlacopan to create
Aztec Empire
25
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The Toltec and Aztec empires, 950-1520
C.E.
26
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Mexica Society
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◼
Hierarchical social structure
High stature for soldiers
❑
❑
❑
Mainly drawn from aristocratic class
Land grants, food privileges
Sumptuary privileges, personal adornment
27
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Mexica Women
◼
◼
Patriarchal structure
Emphasis on child-bearing
❑
❑
Especially future soldiers
Mothers of warriors especially lauded
28
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Priests
◼
◼
◼
◼
Masters of complex agricultural/ritual
calendars
Ritual functions
Read omens, advised rulers
Occasionally became rulers as well
29
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Cultivators and Slaves
◼
Communal groups: calpulli
❑
❑
❑
◼
Originally kin-based
Management of communal lands
Work obligation on aristocratic lands
Slave class
❑
❑
Debtors
Children sold into slavery
30
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Mexica Religion
◼
◼
◼
Influenced by indigenous traditions from the
Olmec period
Ritual ball game
Solar calendar (365 days) and ritual calendar
(260 days)
❑
Not as elaborate as Maya calendar
31
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Mexica Gods
◼
Tezcatlipoca (“smoking mirror”)
❑
❑
◼
Quetzalcóatl
❑
◼
Powerful god of life and death
Patron god of warriors
Arts, crafts, agriculture
Huitzilopochtli
❑
❑
14th century popularity, patron of Mexica
Emphasis on blood sacrifices
32
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Ritual Bloodletting
◼
◼
More emphasis on human sacrifice than
predecessor cultures
Sacrificial victims had tips of fingers torn off
before death, ritual wounds
❑
◼
Victims: Mexica criminals, captured enemy
soldiers
Personal rituals: piercing of penis, earlobes
33
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Aztec Human Sacrifice
34
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Peoples and Societies of the North
◼
Pueblo and Navajo Societies
❑
❑
❑
◼
Iroquois Peoples
❑
◼
American southwest
Maize farming 80% of diet
By 700 CE, construction of permanent stone or
adobe dwellings, 125 sites discovered
Settled communities in woodlands east of
Mississippi
Mound-building peoples
❑
❑
Ceremonial platforms, homes, burial grounds
Cahokia large mound near east St. Louis, 9001250 CE
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35
Trade
◼
◼
◼
No written documents survive regarding
northern cultures
Archaeological evidence indicates
widespread trade
River routes exploited
36
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States and Empires in South America
◼
No writing before arrival of Spaniards, 16th
century CE
❑
◼
◼
Unlike Mesoamerican cultures, writing from 5th c.
CE
Archaeological evidence reveals Andean
society from 1st millennium BCE
Development of cities 1000-1500 CE
37
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Before the Coming of the Incas
◼
◼
◼
After displacement of Chavín, Moche
societies
Development of autonomous regional states
in Andean South America
Kingdom of Chucuito
❑
❑
◼
Lake Titicaca (border of Peru and Bolivia)
Potato cultivation, herding of llamas, alpacas
Kingdom of Chimu (Chimor)
❑
❑
Peruvian coast
Capital Chanchan
38
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The Inca Empire
◼
◼
◼
◼
From valley of Cuzco
Refers to people who spoke Quecha
language
Settlement around Lake Titicaca mid 13th
century
Ruler Pachacuti (r. 1438-1471) expands
territory
❑
❑
Modern Peru, parts of Equador, Bolivia, Chile,
Argentina
Population 11.5 million
39
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The Inca empire, 1471-1532 C.E.
40
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Quipu and Inca Administration
◼
◼
◼
Incas ruled by holding hostages, colonization
No writing, used system of cords and knots
called quipu
Mnemonic aid
41
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Cuzco
◼
◼
◼
Capital of Inca empire
Residents high nobility, priests, hostages
Gold facades on buildings
42
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Inca roads
◼
◼
Massive road building system
Two north-south roads, approximately 10,000
miles
❑
❑
◼
◼
◼
Mountain route
Coastal route
Paved, shaded, wide roads
Courier and messenger services
Limited long-distance trade, held by
government monopoly
43
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Incan Society and Religion
◼
Social elites dominated by infallible king
❑
◼
Claimed descent from the sun
Worship of ancestors
❑
❑
❑
❑
Remains preserved in mummified form
Regularly consulted
Sacrifices offered
Paraded on festive occasions
44
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Aristocrats, Priests, and Peasants
◼
Aristocrats receive special privileges
❑
◼
◼
Earlobe spools as adornment
Priestly class ascetic, celibate
Peasants organized into community groups
called ayllu
❑
❑
❑
Land, tools held communaly
Mandatory work details on land of aristocrats
Public works
45
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Inca Religion
◼
◼
◼
◼
◼
Inti sun god
Viracocha creator god
Temples as pilgrimage sites
Peasant sacrifices usually produce, animals
(not humans)
Sin understood as disruption of divine order
46
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The Societies of Oceania
◼
Nomadic foragers of Australia
❑
Virtually static culture
◼
◼
New Guinea
❑
◼
No agriculture
Swine herding, root cultivation c. 5000 BCE
Small-scale trade of surplus food, some
goods
❑
Pearly oyster shells, spears, boomerangs
47
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Aborigine with Boomerang
48
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Cultural and Religious Traditions
◼
◼
◼
Loosely tied to environment
Myths, stories about geological features
Rituals to ensure continuing food supply
49
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The societies of Oceania.
50
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The Development of Pacific Island
Societies
◼
◼
◼
Established in almost all islands in early
centuries BCE
Trade between island groups
Long-distance voyaging on intermittent basis
❑
❑
Brought sweet potatoes from South America c.
300 CE
Voyages preserved in oral traditions
51
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Population Growth
◼
◼
Extensive cultivation
Fishing innovations
❑
◼
◼
Fish ponds allow small fish in, trap larger fish
Population density leads to social strife,
economic degradation
C. 1500 CE fierce fighting, cannibalism
52
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Development of Social Classes
◼
Complexity of population leads to articulation
of distinct classes
❑
◼
High chiefs, lesser chiefs, commoners, artisans,
peasants
Small multi-island empires form
❑
❑
Limited before 19th century
Yet controlled land allocation, labor and military
conscription
53
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Polynesian Religion
◼
◼
◼
Priests as intermediaries to divine
Gods of war, agriculture most prominent
Ceremonial precinct or temple: Marae (heiau)
54
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